Thoughts of a secondary school SLT

Tag: education

  • What is literate language and how is it relevant at secondary school?

    By the time they start primary school, most children have a robust lexicon of words that they are able to employ for different purposes (Benson, 2009). However, as they progress through the years, they begin to learn more and more words, slowly acquiring a rich and varied vocabulary, capable of expressing great subtlety in meaning.

    This includes more abstract and technical terms, as well as low frequency, subject-specific “Tier 3” words. Many of these words will be multisyllabic and morphologically complex, containing a root word and at least one affix (a prefix or suffix) (Nippold, 2018). This stage of vocabulary acquisition is typically associated with literacy development and increased exposure to written materials which contain more of these “literate” forms.

    Written language differs from oral language in a number of ways, but chiefly in the amount of contextualization or abstraction (Benson, 2009). Whilst oral language is supported by non-linguistic information such as the speaker’s use of gesture and tone of voice, as well as the physical surroundings in which the interaction takes place, written language must stand alone (Rubin, 1987). (For more information about the differences between oral and written language, see my post: https://secondaryschoolslt.wordpress.com/2026/04/06/how-are-oral-and-written-language-different/)

    This results in a particular style of language that is denser, with a more specified lexicon and advanced syntactic structures (Benson, 2009) to convey complex thoughts and relationships between ideas. This style, used in the “literate activities of reading, writing, listening to lectures, talking about language and thought and mastering the school curriculum” has been termed “literate language”, or the “literate lexicon” (Nippold, 1998, p.21).

    Words included under this umbrella are a wide range of conjunctions, adverbs of likelihood and magnitude, factive and non-factive verbs, metacognitive and metalinguistic verbs, polysemous and double function words, as well as adverbial conjuncts and derived nominals and adjectives (Nippold, 1998).

    Whilst simple coordinating conjunctions such as “and”, “but” and “so” are relied on in casual conversation, written and instructional discourse, especially at secondary level, is characterized by a wider range of subordinating conjunctions, including “whereas”, “unless” and “provided that”, to express more complex relationships between ideas (Balthazar et al, 2010).

    Although words such as “possibly”, “somewhat” and “barely” may not seem complicated, adverbs of likelihood and magnitude such as these are also key components of literate language, since they enable precision of thought that goes beyond simple, concrete descriptions.

    Certain types of verbs also contribute to the abstract nature and linguistic specificity of written discourse. Factive and non-factive verbs, such as “know”, “realise”, “believe” and “imagine” reflect different mental states and distinguish between concepts of truth and uncertainty. Metalinguistic verbs such as “assert”, “imply” and “concede”, as well as metacognitive verbs such as “hypothesise”, “infer” and “doubt” are also crucial for academic reasoning and constructing arguments.

    On a related note, polysemous and double function words such as “cold” or “sweet” require advanced metalinguistic awareness to understand that the same word can have different meanings depending on the context. Whilst many words have a casual, everyday sense that even young children will know, academic texts frequently feature the more abstract sense which won’t be learnt until later on (Nippold, 1998).

    At secondary level, adverbial conjuncts such as “consequently”, “subsequently”, “conversely”, and “ultimately” are also used increasingly (Nippold, 2016) in essays and other high level expository texts as a way of “signposting” information for the reader. These words connect ideas across sentences, rather than within sentences as conjunctions do.

    Other examples of literate words include derived nominals and derived adjectives. Derived nominals are nouns formed by adding suffixes to verbs, e.g. “condensation” from condense, whilstderived adjectives come from nouns e.g. “categorical” from category. Words such as these are commonly found in subjects such as science, mathematics and English literature (Nippold, 2018).

    In one study, Nippold examined a range of textbooks for the aforementioned subjects to see how often these types of words occurred. Out of a total of 16,028 words, she found 254 derived nominals and 273 derived adjectives. Although this may not seem like a huge number, she argued that they occurred often enough that any student who struggled with them could easily misinterpret key parts of the text (Nippold, 2018).

    Literate language also extends beyond the lexicon to certain types of sentence structure. Written sentences tend to be longer and more densely packed with information, with subordinate clauses arranged in hierarchical rather than linear fashion to highlight importance of ideas (Balthazar et al, 2010).

    According to Marilyn Nippold, these two features develop in tandem, in what she called the “lexicon-syntax interface” (Nippold, 2014). For example, she highlighted how the use of meta-cognitive verbs drives the use of nominal clauses, e.g. “she assumed that he would arrive” (Nippold, 2014). Elaborated noun phrases are also commonly used in subjects such as science to introduce specialist vocabulary, e.g. “sedimentary rocks, layers of compacted sand and marine shells, are formed over millions of years” (Balthazar et al, 2010).

    To reiterate, most children gradually develop an awareness of literate language features through repeated exposure to and engagement with complex written and instructional materials. Whilst young children tend to learn new words orally through informal conversation, this shifts around the fourth year of primary school (Nippold, 1998), as they move from the “learning to read” to the “reading to learn” stage.

    Older school children learn new words in three main ways: through direct instruction of curriculum vocabulary in their lessons, as well as employing the metalinguistic strategies of contextual abstraction and morphological analysis to their own independent reading (Nippold, 2018). These strategies entail working out the meanings of new words encountered in text from the context and from their constituent parts, respectively.

    Learning new words in this way requires not only metalinguistic awareness and knowledge of a range of different root words and affixes, but also a substantial amount of time spent reading challenging texts on a regular basis (Nippold, 2018). Research has found that active, proficient and motivated readers who are interested in a wide range of topics develop much larger vocabularies than struggling readers. (Nippold, 1998).

    Unfortunately, students with language disorders often fall into the latter category; many struggle to read at a basic level, or to understand what they read (Nippold, 2018). What’s more, those who did not manage to establish a solid basis in oral language skills earlier on in their schooling will have enormous difficulty engaging with more challenging literate language (Benson, 2009).

    Students with language disorders also tend to be less strategic learners (Nippold, 2018), with poorer metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness. Whilst this makes them less likely to use the aforementioned strategies, metalinguistic awareness is also intertwined with literate language on a deeper level, since words are chosen carefully to reflect nuances in meaning (Benson, 2009).

    Difficulties with literate language may appear subtle compared to more obvious oral language deficits. However, familiarity with this style is vital for academic success (Benson, 2009), and any difficulties will affect students’ ability to understand explanations in lectures and textbooks, to write essays and reports, and engage in debates. Ignorance of certain types of words such as derived nominals and adjectives may also hinder success in STEM related subjects and access to those fields (Nippold, 2018).

    For more information about the purpose and distinctive features of academic language, or “expository discourse”, please see my next post: https://secondaryschoolslt.wordpress.com/2026/04/15/what-is-expository-discourse-and-how-is-it-relevant-at-secondary-school/

    Notes

    Balthazar, Catherine H., and Cheryl M. Scott. “The Grammar of Information: Challenges for Older Students with Language Impairments.” Topics in Language Disorders 30, no. 4 (2010): 313–327.

    Benson, Susan E. “Understanding Literate Language: Developmental and Clinical Issues.” Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders 36 (Fall 2009): 174–78.

    Nippold, M.A. (1998) Later language development: The school-age and adolescent years. 2nd ed. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Nippold, Marilyn. (2014). Language Intervention at the Middle School: Complex Talk Reflects Complex Thought. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. 45. 153-156. 10.1044/2014_LSHSS-14-0027.

    Nippold, Marilyn A. “Back to School.” Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 47, no. 4 (2016): 269–71.

    Nippold, Marilyn A. “The Literate Lexicon in Adolescents: Monitoring the Use and Understanding of Morphologically Complex Words.” Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups 3, no. 1 (2018): 211–221.

    Rubin, Donald L. “Divergence and Convergence between Oral and Written Communication.” Topics in Language Disorders 7, no. 4 (1987): 1-18. 

  • Why do some students struggle to understand what they read?

    Reading comprehension is not a single skill, but a complex task underpinned by a range of different abilities and knowledge (Catts, 2021). To understand a text, students must first have adequate sight reading and decoding abilities, as well as fluency in reading. They will need to have adequate background and vocabulary knowledge, and be able to use a range of metalinguistic strategies to work out the meanings of new words as well as to monitor and repair any gaps in understanding.

    They will also need adequate working memory to keep the relevant information in mind and piece it all together into a coherent whole. On top of all this, to truly engage with a text, students will need to infer, reason, compare and contrast, summarise information, problem solve and interpret. Given the complexity of the task, some have gone so far as to call it, “thinking guided by print” (Catts, 2009).

    Catts (2021) emphasized the particular importance of background knowledge in understanding a text. Whilst we may think of reading as a way of learning new information, research has shown that our prior knowledge of the general domain of the text greatly influences comprehension. In one study, poor decoders who were knowledgeable in the subject matter (baseball) outperformed good decoders with poor understanding of the subject (Catts, 2009).

    This may be because new information needs something to hook onto: an anchor (Catts, 2021). When we read a text, we are not so much learning new information, as we are integrating it with our own prior knowledge to create a dynamic “situational model” (Catts, 2009). Having an awareness of the topic can also prevent us from going off on the wrong track, and guide us in making inferences. It is likely that having some background knowledge will also allow students to think more deeply about the topic, due to freeing up working memory space (Catts, 2021).

    Another important aspect of reading comprehension which has sometimes been overlooked, yet is especially relevant to Speech and Language Therapists (SLTs), is sentence comprehension. In her article, “A Case for the Sentence in Reading Comprehension”, Cheryl Scott (2009) argues that many reading comprehension problems are actually the result of undetected sentence processing difficulties. There is a fair amount of evidence for her position.

    Traditionally, students with “literacy difficulties” have been split into two camps: “poor decoders” and “poor comprehenders”. Poor decoders are those who struggle to translate letters into sounds, to blend them together to make words, to read fluently: those who could also be described as “dyslexic”. Poor comprehenders, on the other hand, have no problem with the reading process itself, but they struggle to understand the meaning of a text. Approximately 5-10% of school children could be said to fit into this category (Catts et al, 2006).

    A range of studies have found evidence of weak underlying language abilities in this group. For example, Catts’s group of poor comprehenders scored near the 20% percentile for receptive vocabulary, and near the 30th percentile for grammatical understanding. He observes that although mild, and “subclinical”, these difficulties may be enough to have a significant impact on complex reading comprehension tasks. Whilst these difficulties were often present from kindergarten, only a small percentage of these children had met the criteria for a language disorder, with very few receiving support from an SLT (Catts et al, 2006).

    Despite these findings, reading comprehension interventions have traditionally prioritized the teaching of generic strategies over targeting any underlying language deficits. But Cheryl Scott (2009) observes that if a student is unable to parse individual sentences to derive meaning from them, then they will struggle to understand at text level. Marylin Nippold (2017) also questions how we can expect students to grasp the main idea, or to summarise a passage if they have not understood the individual sentences it is composed of.  Although reading comprehension strategies may be useful to some students, they are unlikely to be effective unless underlying language deficits are addressed first.

    Given the myriad skills required by the task of reading comprehension, it is no wonder that students with underlying language difficulties struggle so much. Besides having poorer vocabularies and syntactic ability as mentioned previously, some of these students may have associated difficulties with working memory and literacy. They are also likely to have poorer background knowledge by dint of their reading difficulties and possible reluctance with reading. Thus, a vicious cycle is born, where students see their difficulties compounded.

    As SLTs, it may be worth paying particular attention to the overlooked role of syntax (Nippold, 2017): something we are very specifically qualified to address. This is particularly relevant to the secondary school years, as students are expected to understand increasingly complex sentence structures (see my post). Indeed, it is no coincidence that a group of “poor comprehenders” typically emerge at this time (Scott, 2009). Unfortunately, there is still a great need for research in this area (Nippold, 2017).

    Notes

    Catts, Hugh W., Suzanne M. Adlof, and Susan Ellis Weismer. “Language Deficits in Poor Comprehenders: A Case for the Simple View of Reading.” Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 49, no. 2 (2006): 278–293.

    Catts, Hugh W. “The Narrow View of Reading Promotes a Broad View of Comprehension.” Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 40, no. 2 (April 2009): 178–183. 

    Catts, Hugh W. “Rethinking How to Promote Reading Comprehension.” American Educator 45, no. 4 (Winter 2021-2022): 26–33. 

    Nippold, Marilyn A. 2017. “Reading Comprehension Deficits in Adolescents: Addressing Underlying Language Abilities.” Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 48 (2): 125–131.

    Scott, Cheryl M. “A Case for the Sentence in Reading Comprehension.” Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 40, no. 2 (2009): 184-191.

  • What are the main challenges of secondary school for students with language disorders?

    The move to secondary school (age 11 in the UK) is difficult for any Year 7 student, but especially so for those with language disorders. On a basic level, secondary schools are typically much bigger than primary schools. The number of students to a class can double in size, and there are large, confusing buildings to navigate.

    At primary school, most pupils have one main classroom teacher who is with them for all their subjects, with whom they can form a more intimate relationship. But at secondary school, students usually have a whole range of teachers for different subjects. Timetables become more challenging to follow, as students have to find their way to different classrooms. Since teachers have so many students, they may struggle to get to know them on an individual basis, and any learning difficulties are more likely to go unnoticed. In short, it is easier to get lost in secondary school.

    Expectations also increase dramatically. Students have to contend with a wide range of subjects involving advanced concepts and specialist vocabulary. They are required to complete higher level tasks, such as analysing literature, writing extended essays and reports, preparing presentations, undertaking research, engaging in critical thinking and debate, and preparing for and sitting exams.

    Workloads increase. To succeed, students must learn to work independently and to manage their time effectively, as well as follow the (often unspoken) rules and routines of school (Nelson, 1998). All of this can feel like something of a shock following the friendly, informal context of primary school.

    On top of all this, these young students must learn to navigate a new social landscape and to find their place in the world, away from the family unit. At a time when their bodies are beginning to change and social interactions are becoming more complex, preadolescents and adolescents must attempt to forge new friendships, find their “group”, avoid being the subject of bullying and attempt to establish a personal identify (Larson and McKinley, 2003).

    Secondary school also brings with it a couple of important, unique challenges which are worth expanding on further, since they particularly affect those with language disorders. The first is a shift which begins in Years 3 and 4, but becomes more pronounced in secondary school, from “learning to read” to “reading to learn” (Balthazar and Scott, 2010).

    One of the main goals of the primary school years is the acquisition of literacy, achieved through regular phonics classes, individual reading and whole class storytelling sessions. At secondary school, it is assumed that most students are able to read and write fluently, so the same level of support is not offered to those who continue to struggle. (Although, positively, some of the better equipped schools I have worked for have offered an online literacy program called “Lexia”).

    Not only will students still struggling with literacy find themselves unsupported, but in the “reading to learn” stage they are now expected to learn new information through their reading. They must move beyond a basic understanding of the text, to draw inferences, analyse, compare and contrast, synthesise and summarise information and think critically (Balthazar and Scott, 2010).

    Clearly any student who has not yet mastered basic decoding skills or reading fluency, who may not even fully understand what they’re reading, will struggle enormously with these higher level tasks. Unfortunately, given the considerable crossover between language and literacy difficulties (see my post for more information), many students with language disorders will fall into this category. Since most subject teachers are unable to dedicate time within the busy classroom to support these students, many will struggle to access the curriculum.

    What’s more, whilst young children typically learn new words through oral exposure, most secondary school students are learning more and more words through their independent reading (Nippold, 1998). Those who avoid reading or who read texts below their cognitive capacity due to residual reading difficulties will have reduced exposure to new vocabulary and linguistic structures. This in turn can negatively impact their language development, leading to the “Matthew effect”, where the rich get richer and the poor get poorer (Snyder and Caccamise, 2008)

    So far, I’ve hinted at the increasing complexity of the language used and demanded at secondary school but have not fully discussed its nature and causes. Firstly, the shift from oral to written communication is more fundamental than a change in medium. Written language is not just oral language “written down”, but is different in both style and function (Rubin, 1987, Nippold, 1998). (For more information about the differences between oral and written language, please see my post: https://secondaryschoolslt.wordpress.com/2026/04/06/how-are-oral-and-written-language-different/)

    Broadly speaking, oral language tends to be less formal, with more familiar vocabulary and simpler sentence structures (Benson, 2009). Written language by contrast tends to be more formal, precise, and information-dense, characterized by a wide range of vocabulary that is richer, more technical and specific in nature, as well as more complex use of syntax (Rubin, 1987, Benson, 2009). Marilyn Nippold also termed this style of language and vocabulary, “literate language”, or the “literate lexicon” (Nippold, 1998). (See post for more details).

    Closely connected with these points, is the emergence of a new type of discourse at secondary school. Whilst narratives predominate in primary school, and continue to develop at secondary, other types of discourse come to the fore: most notably, “expository discourse”, or “expository text”.

    Expository discourse is the language of the classroom, of lectures, textbooks and essays. It is language used to explain, define, inform or instruct. Since its main purpose is to convey new information, it is inherently difficult to understand (Snyder and Caccamise, 2008). And once again, those with language disorders will find it particularly challenging since it tends to be dense, information heavy, with complex vocabulary and syntax (Paul and Norbury, 2012) (See my post: https://secondaryschoolslt.wordpress.com/2026/04/15/what-is-expository-discourse-and-how-is-it-relevant-at-secondary-school/ for more information).

    Despite the move to secondary school being such a challenging time, it has traditionally been when many students with language disorders have been discharged from caseloads (Larson & McKinley 2003). Plenty of recent evidence also indicates that support falls away quickly after primary school (RCSLT, 2023). Given what is at stake, some experts in the field recommend at least supporting students through this difficult transition (Larson & McKinley, 2003).

    You could say that this stage of development also brings with it unique opportunities. There is some evidence that subsequent periods of brain growth occur during the adolescent years, bringing opportunities for growth that may not have been possible earlier on (Larson and McKinley, 2003). What’s more, the increasing cognitive and linguistic demands of the secondary setting can drive further development (Nippold, 1998, 2014) when students are supported effectively. In other words, secondary school is not too late; it may be the perfect time to intervene.

    Notes

    Balthazar, Catherine H., and Cheryl M. Scott. “The Grammar of Information: Challenges for Older Students with Language Impairments.” Topics in Language Disorders 30, no. 4 (2010): 313–327.

    Benson, Susan E. “Understanding Literate Language: Developmental and Clinical Issues.” Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders 36 (Fall 2009): 174–78. doi.org.

    Larson, V.L. and McKinley, N.L. (2003) Communication solutions for older students. Thinking Pub. 

    Nelson, N. W. (1998) Childhood Language Disorders in Context: Infancy Through Adolescence. 2nd edn. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Nippold, M.A. (1998) Later language development: The school-age and adolescent years. 2nd ed. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Nippold, Marilyn. (2014). Language Intervention at the Middle School: Complex Talk Reflects Complex Thought. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. 45. 153-156. 10.1044/2014_LSHSS-14-0027.

    Paul, R. and Norbury, C. (2012) Language Disorders from Infancy Through Adolescence: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Communicating. 4th edn. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.

    Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists (RCSLT). “A Vision for Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) for the UK” London: RCSLT, 2023. https://www.rcslt.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/A-Vision-for-Developmental-Language-Disorder.pdf. 

    Rubin, Donald L. 1987. “Divergence and Convergence between Oral and Written Communication.” Topics in Language Disorders 7 (4): 1–18.

    Snyder, Lynn, and Donna Caccamise. 2008. “Comprehension Processes for Expository Text: Building Meaning and Making Sense.” In New Directions in Communication Disorders Research: Integrative Approaches, edited by M. A. Nippold and C. M. Scott, 13–39. New York: Psychology Press.

  • Later language development: what Speech and Language Therapists need to know about the secondary school years

    Until relatively recently, the topic of later language development had been somewhat neglected. Whilst early childhood is seen as a time of rapid linguistic growth, later language development has been described as “gradual and protracted” (Nippold, 1998, p.3). Still, recent research has elucidated the many important advancements that occur during this period, calling into question the myth that language development is complete by school age.

    What’s normal?

    Whilst the early period is still considered the time of primary language acquisition, there is now a consensus that language development continues into adulthood and has no fixed end point. In the case of vocabulary, for example, even older adults may learn new words as they pursue different hobbies and read widely. On the other hand, some adults never master all grammatical structures, especially if they did not continue on to further education, where more scholarly forms are in more common usage (Nippold, 1998).

    Wide variation is thus characteristic of language development in the later years. As students begin secondary school, choose certain subjects, drop others, and take on extra-curricular activities, they also develop increasingly specialised vocabularies to match their interests: language becomes ever more individual to the student (Nippold, 1998). What’s more, with slang terms, hesitations, and non-specific phrases such as “like” and “stuff” increasingly common in adolescent language, even typical development may appear disordered (Larson and McKinley, 2003). Nippold (1998) points out that even well-educated adults make grammatical errors from time to time.

    These factors make it more difficult to set guidelines and to define what is “normal” during the adolescent years. And because change is slow and gradual, we may need to compare students across very different age groups to see the differences (Nippold, 1998, p.3).

    Walter Loban (1976) was the first person to document language growth into early adulthood through a longitudinal study comparing a low language ability group with a high language ability group. Since then, various other experts in the field have written about the topic, and a body of research now exists in the area. I have drawn mainly on the amazing work of Marylin Nippold in writing this blog post, particularly her book, “Later language development” (Nippold, 1998).

    Vocabulary

    One important development that occurs during the later years is the expansion of vocabulary. Whilst a 6 year old knows roughly 18,000 words, this increases to at least 60,000 in early adulthood (Nippold, 2024). As students progress through school and participate in the “literate” activities of reading, writing, academic discussion and accessing the curriculum, they begin to acquire more technical and specialist vocabulary, as well as concepts such as adverbs of magnitude and likelihood, and metacognitive and metalinguistic verbs (Nippold, 1998).

    Learning a word is also a gradual, rather than an all or nothing process (Nippold, 1998), and many qualitative improvements occur over time. As we encounter words in different contexts, semantic representations strengthen, and new meanings are added to words already in the repertoire: whilst a young child will typically know the physical meaning of a “double function” word such as “cold”, it is only later that she will learn its psychological meaning, and understand how these different meanings overlap (Nippold, 1998, p.15). Slowly, an organised semantic network develops, as connections between similar words are strengthened (Nippold, 1998).

    The way that we learn words also changes. When we are young, we learn words incidentally, through oral input, but when we begin secondary school, a lot of curriculum vocabulary is taught directly in class. Another important source of learning at this age is the written word, as students are exposed to more unusual, abstract and complex vocabulary and structures through their independent reading. Many young readers learn to utilise morphological and contextual clues to figure out the meanings of unfamiliar words they encounter, supported by developing metacognitive skills and a greater awareness of derivational morphology (Nippold, 1998).

    Syntax

    Syntax also develops in various, subtle ways. Considerable growth occurs at both the intrasentential1 and the intersentential2 levels. Individual sentences increase in length, complexity, and density of information (Nippold, 1998). Loban (1976) observed small, but regular increases in sentence length throughout the school years, although Nippold (1998) cautions us that the length of utterance depends very much on the context. All speakers tend to use shorter sentences when communicating in informal, conversational contexts, and longer sentences in more formal contexts, or when required to explain and give detailed information, such as when telling the rules of a game (Nippold, 1998, 2014).

    Clausal density is another sign of mature development. Whilst a 5 year old may be able to form grammatically correct sentences containing a range of subordinate clauses, the ability to construct longer sentences containing multiple, embedded subordinate clauses to express increasingly complex and abstract thoughts continues to develop into adulthood (Nippold, Mansfield, Billow and Tomblin, 2009). Improved understanding and use of a range of subordinating, coordinating and correlative conjunctions goes alongside this (Nippold, 1998).

    Certain types of clause, such as nominal, adverbial and relative clauses are also used increasingly (Nippold, 2024); the latter, in particular are a common sign of maturing language (Loban, 1976). For a detailed look at these, and other aspects of advanced grammar, I highly recommended Nippold’s book: “A grammar guide for Speech-Language Pathologists” (Nippold, 2014).

    Still, a long, clunky sentence is not necessarily a sign of mature language skills when the message could be expressed more succinctly. Loban (1976) found that during the later stages of adolescence, his low language ability group unexpectedly appeared to catch up with his high language group at one point, in terms of the average number of dependent clauses used per communication unit. However, upon deeper analysis, he found that the higher language group were using more sophisticated sentence structures which enabled them to be more concise.

    Rather than continuing to add on further clauses, sentences may be expanded in other ways, such as elaboration of noun and verb phrases through the use of appositives, infinitives, gerunds, prepositional phrases, and others. Indeed, the presence and combination of low-frequency syntactic structures such as these is another characteristic of mature language (Nippold, 1998). Students also learn to link different sentences together using adverbial conjuncts and other devices to produce cohesive discourse (Nippold, 1998).

    Discourse & comprehension

    Narratives are the most dominant type of discourse throughout primary school, and young children already know a lot about storytelling. At secondary school, students learn to construct longer, more detailed and organised narratives containing multiple episodes, whilst giving more space for their characters’ feelings and motivations. At the same time, other types of discourse, such as expository discourse3, persuasion and negotiation come to the fore (Nippold, 1998).

    Comprehension also improves slowly, and older children develop the important ability to process larger units of discourse (Nelson, 1998). Still, Larson and McKinley (2003) caution that we should not expect pre-adolescents and adolescents to understand everything we say to them, since some grammatical structures may not even be understood by adults. Anyone who has read complex academic prose can tell you that some sentences are just harder to understand than others.

    Figurative language & pragmatics

    Abstract thought, and with it figurative language such as similes, metaphors, idioms and proverbs also develops over time. Research has found that preschoolers have some awareness of this type of language, but that deeper understanding emerges during the school years and adolescence. Similarly, jokes, slang and ambiguous language become increasingly important, since they are linked to students’ self-esteem and peer-acceptance (Nippold, 1998). Conversational and pragmatic skills also develop, with older students more able to adapt their communication to different contexts (Nippold, 2024).

    Whilst many linguistic achievements appear to be “built in”, we have seen how school itself, and the contexts in which students find themselves can influence language development. Similarly, the increasing demands of formal education, which typically include reading challenging material, and extended written assignments sometimes requiring independent research may push forward cognitive and linguistic growth (Paul and Norbury, 2012, Nippold, 2024). As Nippold says, “complex thought encourages complex talk” (Nippold, 2014).

    Final thoughts

    Despite the amount of research now available, later language development is still widely ignored. Larson and McKinley (2003) found that very few university programs across the USA offered modules on this topic, and my experience at a UK university in 2012 was similar. In a small survey that I carried out last year, around half of my fellow SLTs did not feel they had the knowledge to work with this age group, with a further 25% feeling unsure, suggesting that perhaps not much has changed. I hope this summary has helped; for a more in-depth look at later language development and a deeper understanding of grammar, I highly recommend Marilyn Nippold’s excellent books (Nippold, 1998, 2023).

    To find out more about what a language disorders might look like in the later years, please see my post: https://secondaryschoolslt.wordpress.com/2026/01/07/what-is-developmental-language-disorder-dld/

    Notes

    Larson, V.L. and McKinley, N.L. (2003) Communication solutions for older students. Thinking Pub. 

    Loban, W. (1976) Language Development: Kindergarten through Grade Twelve. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

    Nelson, N. W. (1998) Childhood Language Disorders in Context: Infancy Through Adolescence. 2nd edn. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Nippold, M.A. (1998) Later language development: The school-age and adolescent years. 2nd ed. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Nippold, M. A., Mansfield, T. C., Billow, J. L. and Tomblin, J. B. (2009) ‘Syntactic development in adolescents with a history of language impairments: a follow-up investigation’, American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18(3), pp. 241–251. 

    Nippold, Marilyn. (2014). Language Intervention at the Middle School: Complex Talk Reflects Complex Thought. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. 45. 153-156. 10.1044/2014_LSHSS-14-0027.

    Nippold, M.A. (2023). Grammar guide for speech-language pathologists: Steps to analyzing complex syntax. San Diego: Plural Publishing.

    Nippold, Marilyn. (2024). Language Development in School-Age Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults. 10.1016/B978-0-323-95504-1.00374-4.

    Paul, R. and Norbury, C. (2012) Language Disorders from Infancy Through Adolescence: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Communicating. 4th edn. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.

    1. Within sentences ↩︎
    2. Between sentences ↩︎
    3. Discourse aiming to explain or inform; this is the language of the classroom, of lectures, textbooks, reports, etc.  ↩︎

  • In at the deep end

    I began my Speech and Language Therapy journey sobbing in the Additional Learning Needs room in the autumn term of 2014. It was the beginning of the academic year and I’d just gotten my first job as a Newly Qualified Practitioner (NQP) at an “academy” in a deprived borough of London. Unusually for a mainstream secondary school, they’d hired a private Speech and Language Therapist – me! – to manage their huge caseload of around 100 students with language and communication needs. And I didn’t seem to be handling it all that well…

    “I get on well with teenagers”, I’d said during the interview, “and since everyone’s so focused on early intervention, I think they can get forgotten about. But I feel they deserve to be supported too…” That’s how I found myself leading (in the loosest sense of the word) seven Speech and Language Therapy sessions a day – for groups of disengaged young people who seemed keener on throwing the bean bag I’d brought as a “talking stick” at each other’s heads than in doing any of the activities I’d carefully planned.

    It didn’t help that I’d never worked in a secondary school before, let alone had a placement in one. Or that my postgraduate course back in 2012 had covered early language development, before moving swiftly onto acquired adult conditions, all but skipping the adolescent period. Although research into this age group is slowly building, it’s still only a fraction of what’s available for early years. You could be forgiven for thinking that language development ends at 5, and there’s nothing left to be done…

    On the contrary, as student after student came through my door for their assessments, a staggering level of need emerged that I’d never have expected to find in this ordinary secondary school. Many were struggling with basic sentence structures and vocabulary, yet they were expected to analyse Shakespearean tragedies and compose essays. The gap between where my students were and where they were expected to be seemed insurmountable – was it really my job to help them cross it?

    Meanwhile, as the only SLT at school, I had to wait for my weekly supervision session at the clinic for a sighting of one of my colleagues. This made for a slightly strange and isolating first year. And without anyone to ask advice on a daily basis, my students became a mirror for how I was doing. The reflection wasn’t always flattering. They’d often “act out” or refuse to come to my sessions. This was tough, but looking back, it was some of the clearest and most honest feedback I ever received.

    I only ended up staying at that first school for a year, but I did stick with the age group. Over the next decade I went on to work at a range of mainstream secondaries around London, mainly privately, but also as a locum for the NHS.

    Slowly, things started to get better, and I began to see my own progress reflected in my students. Their annual CELF-5 scores improved. They’d tell me that they were understanding more in class; that they were finding it easier to follow their teachers’ instructions. A memory strategy helped one remember his mum’s PIN so he could help her with the shopping (so he said!). Another would proudly show me his conduct card at the beginning of every session with admittedly fewer infractions than the previous term.

    But most of all, my students began showing up more – physically and mentally – to my sessions. And overwhelmingly they did so without complaining; it was almost as if they thought it was helping!

    I’m not a researcher or academic – just an ordinary SLT who’s been in the extra-ordinary position of having time, week in, week out, to try out a range of interventions with my students to see what worked. It’s taken a lot of trial and error, digging out random books and taking obscure courses to get to a point where I feel like I’m truly serving my students’ needs.

    My practice is by no means perfect, but I wanted to start this blog to pass on what I’ve learnt, and to share a window into my practice for anyone who’s interested. Whether you’re a student, SLT or another professional interested in finding out more, I hope this helps.

    Tawna

    You might like to start here: https://secondaryschoolslt.wordpress.com/2026/01/07/what-is-developmental-language-disorder-dld/